OBJECTIVE WRITING

WRITING INSTRUCTIONAL OBJECTIVES

Kathy V. Waller, PhD, CLS(NCA)

NAACLS Board of Directors

Educators have used instructional, or behavioral, objectives for at least four decades. Robert

Mager’s little text, Preparing Instructional Objectives

, first printed in 1962, assisted many

instructors in formulating and writing objectives. Since then, the use of objectives has become

commonplace in education. The National Accrediting Agency for Clinical Laboratory Sciences

(NAACLS) also affirms the value of objectives. Specifically, Essentials 12 and 13 address the

importance of incorporating objectives within the curriculum and specific units of study.

The purpose of this unit is to assist the educator in writing objectives using a standard protocol.

Objectives are not difficult to write if one follows the guidelines noted below.

Instructional objectives are written for the student and they state what the student is expected to

do following instruction. Objectives are specific, observable, and measurable learning

outcomes. In contrast, goals are general and non-specific. Goals are appropriate for an entire

course or a curriculum of study, while objectives are written for individual units of study.

There are benefits to incorporating objectives within our coursework. Objectives emphasize

major points and reduce non-essential material. Objectives simplify note taking and cue the

students to emphasize major points. Objectives assist students in organizing and studying

content material. They guide the students to what is expected from them and help them to study

important information. Objectives assist the student in studying more efficiently. Finally, when

examination items mirror objectives, students can use the objectives to anticipate test items.

There are four components of an objective: 1) the action verb, 2) conditions, 3) standard, and 4)

the intended audience (always the student). The action verb is the most important element of an

objective and can never be omitted. The action verb states precisely what the student will do

following instruction. Verbs are categorized by domains of learning and various hierarchies.

Benjamin Bloom and his colleague, David Krathwohl, were pioneers in categorizing the

domains and levels.

The three domains of learning are the cognitive domain that emphasizes thinking; the affective

domain highlighting attitudes and feelings; and the psychomotor domain featuring doing. The

first domain that was characterized by Bloom was the cognitive, which is further divided into six

levels or hierarchies.

Cognitive (Thinking) Domain

Knowledge

Comprehension

Application

Analysis

Synthesis

Evaluation

Sometimes the six hierarchies or levels listed above are grouped into three categories:

Level 1. Recall – Knowledge and Comprehension

Level 2. Interpretation – Application and Analysis

Level 3. Problem-Solving – Synthesis and Evaluation

Recall objectives are at the basic taxonomic level and involve recall or description of

information. Interpretation is a higher level of learning and involves application and

examination of knowledge. Problem-solving skills test the highest level of learning and involve

construction and assessment of knowledge. Examples of appropriate verbs for use with each of

the three domains follow.

Writing Objectives: Key Verbs

Cognitive (Thinking) Domain

The following key verbs will help to write good objectives and also establish a relative "taxonomic level" for each

Objective.

EVALUATION

Appraise

SYNTHESIS

Approve

Assess

Arrange Choose

Assemble Conclude

ANALYSIS

Build Confirm

Combine Criticize

Analyze Compile Critique

Appraise Compose Diagnose

APPLICATION

Audit Conceive Evaluate

Break down Construct Judge

Adapt Calculate Create Justify

COMPREHENSION

Apply Categorize Design Prioritize

Catalogue Certify Devise Prove

Arrange Chart Compare Discover Rank

Associate Compute Contrast Draft Rate

Clarify Consolidate Correlate Formulate Recommend

KNOWLEDGE

Classify Demonstrate Criticize Generate Research

Convert Develop Deduce Integrate Resolve

Cite Describe Employ Defend Make Revise

Choose Diagram Extend Detect Manage Rule on

Define Draw Extrapolate Diagram Organize Select

Label Discuss Generalize Differentiate Plan Support

List Estimate Illustrate Discriminate Predict Validate

Locate Explain Infer Distinguish Prepare

Match Express Interpolate Examine Propose

Name Identify Interpret Infer Reorder

Recall Locate Manipulate Inspect Reorganize

Recognize Outline Modify Investigate Set up

Record Paraphrase Order Question Structure

Repeat Report Predict Reason Synthesize

Select Restate Prepare Separate

State Review Produce Solve

Write Sort Relate Survey

Summarize Sketch Test

Transfer Submit Uncover

Translate Tabulate Verify

Transcribe

Use

Utilize

Level 1: Recall Level

2: Interpretation Level 3: Problem-solving

Note: Some verbs may be applicable within more than one category: for example. depending on the situation, "calculate" may

fit under application or analysis.

Writing Objectives: Key Verbs

Attitudinal or Affective (Valuing) Domain

CHARACTERIZATION

BY A VALUE OR

VALUE COMPLEX

Act

ORGANIZATION

Administer

Advance

Anticipate Advocate

Collaborate Aid

VALUING

Confer Challenge

Consider Change

Adopt Consult Commit (to)

Aid Coordinate Counsel

RESPONDING

Care (for) Design Criticize

Complete Direct Debate

Agree Compliment Establish Defend

Allow Contribute Facilitate Disagree

RECEIVING

Answer Delay Follow through Dispute

Ask Encourage Investigate Empathize

Accept Assist Endorse Judge Endeavor

Acknowledge Attempt Enforce Lead Enhance

Attend (to) Choose Evaluate Manage Excuse

Follow Communicate Expedite Modify Forgive

Listen Comply Foster Organize Influence

Meet Conform Guide Oversee Motivate

Observe Cooperate Initiate Plan Negotiate

Receive Demonstrate Interact Qualify Object

Describe Join Recommend Persevere

Discuss Justify Revise Persist

Display Maintain Simplify Praise

Exhibit Monitor Specify Profess

Follow Praise Submit Promote

Give Preserve Synthesize Promulgate

Help Propose Test Question

Identify Query Vary Reject

Locate React Weigh Resolve

Notify Respect Seek

Obey Seek Serve

Offer Share Strive

Participate (in) Study Solve

Practice Subscribe Tolerate

Present Suggest Volunteer (for)

Read Support

Relay Thank

Reply Uphold

Report

Respond

Select

Try

The affective domain in concerned with changes

(growth) in interests. attitudes and values. It is divided into five major

classes arranged in hierarchical order based on level of involvement (from receiving, to characterization by a value).

Writing Objectives: Key Verbs

Psychomotor (Doing or Skills) Domain

Absorb

Add

Adsorb

Adjust

Aliquot

Apply

Aspirate

Assemble

Balance

Bind

Blend

Build

Calculate

Calibrate

Centrifuge

Change

Choose

Classify

Clean

Collate

Collect

Combine

Connect

Construct

Control

Combine

Confirm

Connect

Construct

Control

Cool

Correct

Count

Create

Crush

Cut

Decant

Demonstrate

Describe

Design

Dialyze

Differentiate

Dilute

Discard

Dismantle

Dispense

Dispose

Dissect

Dissolve

Drain

Draw

Dry

Elute

Employ

Estimate

Evacuate

Examine

Expel

Fasten

Fill

Filter

Fractionate

Frame

Freeze

Grade

Grasp

Grind

Group

Guide

Handle

Heat

Hemolyze

Identify

Illustrate

Incubate

Inject

Input

Insert

Invert

Investigate

Isolate

Label

Locate

Localize

Lyse

Maintain

Make

Maneuver

Manipulate

Mark

Macerate

Measure

Mix

Moisten

Mount

Observe

Obtain

Open

Operate

Pack

Palpate

Participate

Perform

Pick

Pipet

Place

Plate

Plot

Position

Pour

Prepare

Press

Process

Produce

Program

Pull

Puncture

Push

Read

Record

Release

Remove

Replace

Resuspend

Retest

Rinse

Roll

Rotate

Save

Scan

Score

Screen

Seal

Select

Sensitize

Separate

Set

Sever

Shake

Sharpen

Ship

Siphon

Spin

Spread

Squeeze

Stain

Standardize

Start

Stick

Stir

Stop

Stopper

Store

Suspend

Take

Test

Thaw

Thread

Tilt

Time

Tip

Titrate

Trim

Touch

Transfer

Troubleshoot

Turn

Type

Use

Utilize

View

Warm

Wash

Watch

Weigh

Withdraw

Wipe

Wrap

Writing Objectives

The ABCD method of writing objectives is similar to the theory explained here; the terminology

is just slightly different. A is the audience, always the student. B is the behavior or the action

verb. C is the condition for the objective and D is the degree of achievement or acceptable

criteria.

Conditions

Conditions describe the relevant factors associated with the desired performance. For example:

1. after attending a lecture. . . .

2. following review of a demonstration. . . .

3. given a case study. . . .

4. after completing the assignment. . . .

5. given a specific instrument. . . .

Criteria

The criteria are specified as the acceptable level of achievement desired. They tell how well the

learner must perform. This part of the objective may be omitted when there is no deviation from

standard procedures or protocols. For example:

1. percent of correct responses

2. within a given time period

3. in compliance with criteria presented by the faculty

Order and Tense

There is a preferred order when writing objectives. The condition is usually placed first,

followed by the behavior or verb, and then the criteria. Objectives are written in the future tense.

For example:

Recall: After attending lecture and reading the assigned materials, the student will state

the function of a thermometer.

Interpretation: After attending lecture and studying the assigned materials, the student

will demonstrate how a thermometer works.

Problem-Solving: After attending lecture and studying the assigned materials (including

problem sets), the student will formulate the degrees in C given the degrees in F, or vice

versa.

To avoid redundancy in writing objectives an educator often lists a single condition with the

objectives underneath.

After attending lecture and studying the assigned materials, the student will:

1. . . . . .

2. . . . . .

3. . . . . .

Nonfunctional Verbs

The following verbs cannot be measured or are redundant. They should be avoided when writing

objectives.

able to shows interest in

appreciation for knows

awareness of has knowledge of

capable of learns

comprehend memorizes

conscious of understands

familiar with will be able to

Examples of Objectives for the Cognitive Domain

Poor To increase the student’s ability to visually identify white cells on a differential.

Better The student will identify correctly all white cells on a differential.

Poor The student will gain knowledge of automated chemistry tests.

Better The student will state the principle for each automated chemistry test listed.

Poor The student will be familiar with red blood cell maturation in the bone marrow.

Better The student will diagram the maturation of red blood cells.

Poor The student will understand the interpretation of hemoglobin electrophoresis

patterns.

Better Given several electrophoretic scans, the student will correctly diagnose each

normal or abnormal pattern.

Levels Within the Cognitive Domain

LEVEL #1. KNOWLEDGE

Knowledge involves recognition or recalling of

• definitions

• specifics

Here, one is expecting learners to:

• remember an idea, phenomenon, or a fact in somewhat the form in which it

was presented.

For example, one might design an activity that requires a learner to:

• write the formula for ethyl alcohol

• define diuresis

• list the six levels in the cognitive domain of Bloom’s taxonomy

Generally, KNOWLEDGE encompasses the cognitive process of remembering

learned material

LEVEL#2. COMPREHENSION

Comprehension usually involves

• translation

• associations

Here, one is expecting the learner to:

• communicate an idea or thing (event) in a new or different form (translation)

• see relationships among things or events (associations)

For example, one might design an activity that requires a learner to:

• describe three distinguishing features of the Lewis blood group system

• explain the rationale for using “selective media” in microbiology

Generally, COMPREHENSION encompasses the cognitive process of explaining

material that

has been learned.

LEVEL #3 APPLICATION

Application is described by Bloom as “the use of abstract forms in particular and concrete

situations. The abstractions may be in the form of general ideas, rules or procedures, generalized

methods.”

In application, one expects the learner to

• relate or apply ideas to new situations

• use what he/she comprehends from a variety of areas to solve problems

For example:

• when given the clinical situation of a patient needing a transfusion, submit the

most suitable blood product to be used

• apply Universal Precautions to establish and maintain a safe laboratory

environment

Generally, APPLICATION involves using

knowledge to find or develop new solutions.

LEVEL #4 ANALYSIS

Analysis involves examining

• elements

• relationships

• organizational principles

Here, one is expecting the learner to:

• break “things” down into their component parts

• uncover the unique characteristics of a concept or event

For example,

• when given a patient’s hematologic data, appraise that data to ascertain

whether they are internally consistent and can be reported

• when given various cell panels, analyze the results to identify an unexpected

antibody(s)

Generally, ANALYSIS involves the ability to break down material into component parts so that

its organizational structure may be understood.

LEVEL #5 SYNTHESIS

Synthesis involves an ability to

• generate a set of abstract relations (to “hypothesize”)

• create a plan or propose a set of operations

Here, one is expecting the learner to:

• take “things “ and reorganize them in a new way

• create new or original concepts

For example,

• prepare appropriate financial statements for decision-making

• propose a “core laboratory” structure to optimize efficiency and effectiveness

Note: the processes with SYNTHESIS involve inductive

, not deductive reasoning. This can be

difficult when one considers that the profession of clinical laboratory science usually uses

information to arrive at conclusions. (We are skilled deductive thinkers, but may not be as

skilled inductive thinkers.) Thus, preparing objectives at this level may be difficult.

LEVEL #6 EVALUATION

Evaluation includes the ability to judge, using

• internal standards and

• external criteria

to bring about informed decisions

Here, one is expecting the learner to:

• make judgments about “things” or events based on internal and external

criteria

• accept or reject “things” or events based on established standards

For example:

• evaluate and select a chemistry automated system in view of costs, personnel,

productivity and space available

• validate all of the laboratory data received from a patient with a recent bone

marrow transplant

Generally, this cognitive function involves the ability to judge the value of some thing for a

given purpose.

The educator should use a combination of all three levels of cognitive verbs when writing

learning outcomes. The test question should reflect the level of the objective; thus if an objective

is recall, then a similar verb like “state” should be used in the test question. If the objective is

problem solving, then the test question might use a verb such as “diagnose” or “evaluate.”

Additional Examples of Objectives

Lecture Objectives (Hemolytic Anemias)

After attending the lecture, reading the assignment, and performing the tests in the laboratory,

the student will:

1. Define the term hemolytic anemia. (recall)

2. Classify the major hemolytic anemias by their intrinsic or extrinsic causes. (recall)

3. Summarize each disease discussed in lecture including distinguishing characteristics,

clinical manifestations, laboratory findings, pathology, and treatment. (recall)

4. For each disease discussed in lecture, determine the appropriate tests to resolve the

problem. Include the principle and mechanism of each test in the evaluation.

(interpretation)

5. Given a set of laboratory data and patient history, correctly diagnose the disease.

(problem-solving)

Affective Objectives

After attending a lecture on Essential Functions, the student will exhibit the following behaviors:

1. Communicate effectively in written and spoken English.

2. Appropriately assess nonverbal and verbal communication.

3. Follow written and verbal directions.

4. Work independently and with others under time constraints.

5. Prioritize requests and work concurrently on at least two different tasks.

6. Maintain alertness and concentration during a normal work period.

7. Apply knowledge, skills, and values learned from course work and life experiences to

new situations.

8. Show respect for self and others

9. Project an image of professionalism including appearance, dress, and confidence.

Psychomotor Objectives

Upon completion of the laboratory exercise the student will:

1. Correctly perform the electrophoretic procedure and obtain a satisfactory pattern that

could be accurately interpreted by both the student and the faculty member.

2. Interpret normal and abnormal electrophoretic patterns with 100% accuracy as compared

with patterns interpreted by the CLS.

3. Using a densitometer, obtain the concentration of each protein fraction within 10% of

faculty member’s results.

4. Perform calcium determinations on serum using a direct spectrophotometric method

within 10% of the reported result.

5. Demonstrate skill in using micropipetting devices to the satisfaction of the faculty

member.

References

Bloom, Benjamin S., (Ed.), Taxonomy of Education Objectives: Handbook I: Cognitive Domain

N.Y., David McKay Company, Inc. 1956.

Mager, Robert, Preparing Instructional Objectives

, Palo Alto, California, Fearon Press, 1962.

Krathwohl, D.R., Bloom, B.S. and Masia, B.B. Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: Handbook

II. The Affective Domain.

N.Y., David McKay Company, Inc. 1964.

Harrow, A. J. A Taxonomy of the Psychomotor Domain. N.Y. David McKay Company, Inc.

1972.

Ford, Charles W., (Ed.), Clinical Education for Allied Health Professions

, St. Louis, C.V./

Mosby Company, 1978.

Karni, Karen, Writing Great Objectives and Exam Questions. Presented at the Clinical

Laboratory Educators Conference, Salt Lake City, UT. 2000